A Brief History of Biblical Archaeology

The very title of the discipline evokes a response from those hearing it. To the ears of conservative believers it combines thoughts of Indiana Jones and their beloved Bible. Hopes give rise to imagination that either the Ark of the Covenant or the Ark of Noah may be uncovered. It makes sense that most Christians believe biblical archaeology to be concerned with these pursuits, because it is not too uncommon for adventures and authors to peddle such ideas. As we explore what it means to do biblical archaeology, we mustn’t forget this initial feeling of excitement and curiosity that is elicited from the title of the discipline.

Equally as strong is the response from critics, who take offense at the idea of calling the discipline after a sacred, religious book. This does seem at times out-of-place for there is not Quranic archaeology or so-called Mormon archaeology. Thus, what right do scores of professionals have to run around Israel, Jordan, and Syria aligning their work with the Bible. It might stem back in part to the work of a German scholar, who began excavations in Greece in the 1860s. Heinrich Schliemann loved Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey and set out to understand the world of their time. While certainly Homeric archaeology might seem a bit of stretch, it gave credence to the study of another literary work –the Bible.

Biblical archaeology was born. It was practiced even prior to Schliemann’s quest by American scholar Edward Robinson. He traveled through Egypt, Sinai, and Palestine with a missionary to Beirut in 1837. His objective was to identify various sites of the Old and New Testament. He published his findings in 1841 entitling the three volume work Biblical Research in Palestine. This well-read source gave rise to the Palestine Exploration Fund in Britain established in 1865.

A war veteran Captain Charles Warren was commissioned in mapping important sites especially Jerusalem. Warren is most famous for the shaft dug bearing his name leading to Hezekiah’s Tunnel in the City of David. Charles Clermont-Ganneau was also an early explorer with the PEF. He rescued the Mesha (Moabite) Stela and studied the Siloam Tunnel Inscription. William Matthew Flinders Petrie worked towards the close of the 19th century applying engineering and surveying techniques to the budding field of archaeology. Petrie introduced the concept of stratigraphy to Biblical archaeology with his work at Tell el-Hesi in 1890.

At the start of the 20th century R.A.S. Macalister dug at Tell es-Safi (Gath) and German expeditions began at Taanach, Jericho, and Megiddo. The United States entered the field officially in 1900 with the formation of the American Schools of Oriental Research. George Reisner of Harvard began work in Samaria in 1909. Then World War I came shortly thereafter. While excavations were mostly on hold during this “War to end all Wars,” a beneficial outcome of the war opened the way to the Golden Age of Biblical Archaeology.

Palestine and much of the Levant was under Ottoman (or Turkish) control prior to World War I. After the defeat of Germany and likewise its Ottomon ally Britain took control of Palestine entitling their occupation “a British Mandate.” This allowed easier access to areas of the region now under British control.

This gave rise to the giant of the field of biblical archaeology William Foxwell Albright. Albright from Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland brought a focus on pottery and an unflinching commitment to the Biblical text to uncover history in the sands of Israel. Albright saw the Bible as the main historical record of what happened in Israel. He believed that the message and stories of the Bible could be trusted unless overwhelming evidence came out to the contrary. He came to the Bible to discover clues about what he was examining in the field. He believed the text could communicate much about the social and cultural background of the ancient Israelites.

Albright was massively influential training hundreds of students in field archaeology and influencing biblical studies and the study of near eastern languages. He also was an imposing figure as a professor of subsequent generations of archaeologists. His books and his opinions often rang as gospel declarations to those looking for answers. This grand stature brought him enemies during his life and critics after his death. The reasons of enemies often came from personal disagreements with him during his life. Those criticizing him after attacked his method now that he was no longer there to defend himself nor fail them in their courses of study.

The criticism arises from contention that the Bible had too central a place in the theories and methods of William Albright. He is criticized for allowing his desire to read the Bible as historically accurate cloud his better judgment of the “facts” in the field. Albright serves not only as a historical intersection for the field of biblical archaeology, but also a methodological intersection.

Almost all those coming after Albright distinguish themselves as in the line with Albright or clearly separate from him. Those that have recognized continuity with Albright still accept the term biblical archaeology, but those seeking distance from him have preferred alternatives. Thus, the field faces the dilemma of a name. Some stick merely to Near Eastern Archaeology distinguishing itself from the Far East, yet this is a far reaching area. Others prefer a specific geographic designation such a William Dever, who prefers Syro-Palestinian archaeology.

Calvin on the Riches Found in Christ

“We see that our whole salvation and all its parts are comprehended in Christ. We should therefore take care not to derive the least portion of them from anywhere else. If we seek salvation, we are taught by the very name of Jesus that it is ‘of him.’ If we seek any other gifts of the Spirit, they will be found in his anointing. If we seek strength, it lies in his dominion; if purity in his conception; if gentleness, it appears in his birth. For by his birth he was made like us in all respects that he might learn to feel our pain. If we seek redemption, it lies in his passion; if acquittal, in his condemnation; if remission of the curse, in his cross; if satisfaction, in his sacrifice; if purification, in his blood; if reconciliation, in his descent into hell; if mortification of the flesh, in is tomb; if newness of life, in his resurrection; if immortality, in the same; if inheritance of the Heavenly Kingdom, in his entrance into heaven; if protection, if security, if abundant supply of all blessings, in his Kingdom; if untroubled expectation of judgment, in the power given to him to judge. In short, since rich store of every kind of good abounds in him, let us drink our fill from this fountain, and from no other.”

John Calvin. Book II, Chapter XVI, 18.

Digging @ Ashkelon: Post 3

The last couple days were rough (yes my birthday too). I started on Monday by digging out a foundation trench. A foundation trench is dug for a wall. Then large stones would be placed in the bottom of the trench. Then the wall would be placed in that trench and built up. Lastly, the wall would be anchored with material on the side of it above ground. This was a straightforward job and fairly enjoyable.

Then I moved on to another room in the Iron I Philistine house. My job was to clean a wall and try to find an entry door. I spent the rest of Monday and all day on Tuesday picking, patiching, and sweeping this wall. It had some winter rain rot on it. I scraped it, and I brushed it some more. All in all I spent some 10 hours on this wall. I did find the entry way, which was piled up with mud bricks in a semi-regular construction (including some vertical bricks on the end). There was also a variation of bricks with later sun-dried or perhaps baked bricks.

All this led up to today (Wednesday), which was probably my second favorite day of archaeology yet. Today we fine grided the floor the room I’ve been working in. This means that we put down meter by meter twine to mark out squares on the floor. Then I worked with two other excavators to patiche a few centimeters of the floor of the room so that it can be “floated.” The process of floating involves taking samples (usually of floor) carefully demarcating their exact location. The sample when filled in a bucket with water has the biological remnants rise to the surface. This often can reveal the eating habits or materials used inside the Philistine home that end up on the floor (just like in our kitchens today!).

This room may in fact be a kitchen as we also uncovered a hearth and perhaps a baking tray. I personally found a spindle made of bone. This would seem to confirm this room as occupied by women (see Stager and King Life in Biblical Israel p. 152). We also worked at finding the next level of sub-floor trying to be careful of heading to the next occupation which would have been Late Bronze Egyptian occupation. This important work on the floor also involved 1:1 sifting as I mentioned in Digging @ Ashkelon: Post 2.

An Ashkelon Biblical Tidbit:

Perhaps the most famous Ashkelon biblical reference is in Judges 14. Samson was down in Timnah and saw a Philistine woman that he wanted to marry. On his way he killed a lion and didn’t tell his parents. A few days he walked by the carcass and a swarm of bees had made a hive there with honey. Samson gives some companions for his wedding of the Philistine woman a riddle to figure out. "Out of the eater came something to eat. Out of the strong came something sweet."

The men couldn’t figure it out so they pressed Samson’s wife to find out. She nagged him and Samson told her. She told the men, who then gave the answer to Samson to avoid the cost of the bet for not arriving at the answer (30 pieces of linen and 30 changes of clothes). Samson is angry with the men, knowing how they got the answer. He makes a crass sexual comment of them plowing with his heifer. To repay the bet Samson goes to the nearby Philistine city of Ashkelon killed 30 men and gave their garments to the men. Samson didn’t get to keep his wife after this Ashkelon incident as she was given to his companion, perhaps his best man. A Philistine city was used to repay the Philistine trickery.

Digging @ Ashkelon: Post 2

Sifting is a process of great importance to the archaeological endeavor. After removing dirt and placing it in a floppy pail (called a goofa), excavators must sift through the dirt to see if there are any remains that may have been missed. Excavators are always placing pottery sherds and bones into buckets designated for the area where they are working. Beyond this there is a ratio of sifting corresponding to the importance of the area where they are working. For example in general fill material the sifting ratio may be 5:1 or 7:1. This would mean that of five buckets of material collected only one would need sifting. In more important areas the sifting may be more focused such as 3:1 or as I was doing on Thursday 1:1! The 1:1 sift is time consuming as one can imagine how quickly a bucket can be filled with dirt. Then after it is filled it must be sifted.

The sifting process is the dumping of a bucket into a sift (a hanging box with wire to allow small material to pass through, leaving only larger chunks to be observed). At the grid I am working in (Grid 38) we have two sifts that hang from a tree and are almost constantly in use. After shaking the sift to reveal the larger chunks that remain, I look through sherds of pottery and bone fragments to be taken back to my areas processing bucket.

Additionally, we also do fine sifting in cases where especially small material culture may be expected. On Thursday I was working in a peculiar room that as of yet is fully identified. We have found hundreds of tiny, multi-color beads in this particular room. I have the privilege of finding a handful of beads on Thursday that would have been strung on a necklace of some sort. The process of finding them involved this fine sifting that does demand a large portion of time. The rich benefit of the time is a step closing in understanding the function of the room in the daily life of the Philistines, who occupied this place.It is overwhelming at points to be looking at walls and floors and touching beads and other objects that a Philistine used back in 1100-1200 BCE.

An Ashkelon Biblical Tidbit:
Check out Joshua 1:1-3 and Judges 1:18-19. These verses first look to be in contradiction, but when read carefully it is interesting to see the perspectival differences of each. Judges seems to show a contradiction with Joshua in verse 18, but verse 19 explains the plains (where Ashkelon is) could not be captured due to a superior cultural/military ability of the Philistines.

Digging @ Ashkelon: Post 1

My time in Ashkelon has been going well. I am currently digging in Grid 38 of the Tel dealing with Iron 1A material. I am learning a ton about judging soil and tracing floors in the Philistine home we are working in. I’ve learned much about Philistine architecture during my time so far as well as general archaeological technique.

The primary tools for archaeology are a trowel, a pick, a piteesh, and a turia, as well as a brush and dust pan. The team I am working with is incredibly knowledgeable with students from Harvard, Wheaton, Penn State, UW Madison, UC Berkley, and Princeton. I am humbled with the intelligence and diligence with which the team works. They have patiently explained and reexplained techniques to me.

I’ve been working on two primary activities so far. First, I worked to locate the floor of the home we are working in for the phase 20 occupation. This is one of the earliest of the Philistine occupation of Ashkelon. Remember, the Philistines were part of the Sea People invasion throughout the Levantine coast and into Egypt. Their presence is attested in the Medinet Habu relief. There are wearing feathered headdresses and are using Bronze and Iron weaponry. The Philistines are believed to have originated from Greek Peninsulas. Egypt repelled the Sea People invasion and allowed the Philistines to settle along the Levantine coast. There they thrived in the rich coastal soil and functioned as the bane to the hill dwelling Israelites. The common home we are excavating is from the time period of early occupation in 12th century BCE. My task of locating a floor was truly difficult in picking my way through several layers until the beaten, earth floor was located. It can sometimes be identified by flat laying pottery sherds (flat because they are on the floor of the level), a horizontal tree root growing, and a white residue indicating foliage. Our excavation director assisted me in locating this floor and I worked to find it from there tracing it throughout my day.

A highlight was my find of a tiny, deity amulet used to ward off evil spirits from children. This amulet piece has two holes in its ears so that it can be strung and worn as a necklace. This was the second found in this location, and I was able to display this stunning, accidental find to my team members (who helped me learn what is was) and the acclaimed Dr. Lawerence Stager. (pictured above)

My second activity has been tracing the platform of a sherd hearth. This would be used to heat food in the household. It is interesting in that it is located near a large column. The hearth was found, and I spent the day following ash remains and sherds until the corners and ends of the platform became apparent. I then worked to lower surrounding fill to the same phase 20 floor level. While I certainly cannot claim to be an expert nor the true impetus of these great finds, I can say that I am an eager student who is learning every moment from the field archaeologists around me.

Psalm 119: Functions of the Word

The Word of God is described by each of these terms. While the Torah certainly dominates this psalm, it may very well envision the entire Tanakh if this is late in composition. Thus, it seems quite likely to envision all of the Old Testament. Its canonical life certainly declares all of the OT as fitting these descriptions, though it may be possible to consider the entire Christian Scriptures as related since canonically the testaments are joined. Thus, the revealed, Holy Bible is each of these things to us as Christians.

Your Law(s)
Your Ancient Laws
Your Righteous Laws
Your Law(s)
Your Statutes
Your Precepts
Your Commands
Your Decrees
Your Ways
Your Word of truth
Your Word(s)
Your Name
Your Promise(s)

If the Scriptures are each of these things then one must be reminded that diversity and unity are seen in this list. First, it is unifying how all of these are in relation to the LORD (YHWH). Secondly, the diversity is seen in the various expressions that emphasize the Word as a legislative, prescriptive entity (laws, statutes, precepts, commands, and decrees). The Word also functions as a guiding, instructive entity (ways). The Word must be understood as actual speech from the LORD (Words). It also is intricately linked with YHWH Himself, so that the Word is tied to His Name. Finally, the Word is a means of hope by the way in which YHWH has used His speech –namely Promises.

As Eugene Peterson says, “We do not come to God by guesswork: God reveals himself. These scriptural words reveal the Word that created heaven and earth; they reveal the Word that became human flesh in Jesus for our salvation. God’s word is written, handed down, and translated for us so that we can enter the plot. We hold these Bibles in our hands and read them so that we can listen and respond to these creating and saving words and get in, firsthand, on the creating and saving.”

Eugene H. Peterson. Eat This Book: A Conversation in the Art of Spiritual Reading. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2006, 20.

Calvin’s Institutes on the Restraint of Sin in the Unbeliever

I have been intrigued in reading through the Institutes of the Christian Religion by John Calvin on the pervasive reach of Calvin in trickle-down effect to much my own theological training (though often unacknowledged). I also find his relevance remarkable and inspiring. In Book 2 chapter 3 Calvin speaks of God’s grace in restraining sin. He has already made a strong case for the universal depravity of humanity and the totally tainted will that cannot help but sin. Then in discussing God’s grace in the restraining of sin.

“But here it ought to occur to us that amid this corruption of nature there is some place for God’s grace; not such grace as to cleanse it, but to restrain it inwardly. For if the Lord gave loose rein to the mind of each man to run riot on his lusts, there would doubtless be no one who would not show that, in fact, every evil thing which Paul condemns [in Romans 3] all nature is most truly to be met in himself.”

“If every soul is subject to such abominations as the apostle boldly declares, we surely see what would happen if the Lord were to permit human lust to wander according to its own inclination. No mad beast would rage as unrestrainedly; no river, however swift and violent, burst so madly into flood.”

Calvin speaks of ways that unbelievers are restrained in their sin from this torrent of depravity overflowing to as bad as it can get. He explains that some are restrained by being bridled, others restrained by shame, others by fear of the law, some due to the honest way seeming more profitable, and finally others try to be better than the rest.

These descriptions of restraint explain much of the ways unbelievers perform common goodness, yet they themselves are not regenerated. It is these signs of restrains that we Christian ministers must use when explaining the gospel so that an unbeliever does not mistake some form of restraint from actual moral goodness.


John Calvin. The Institutes of Christian Religion. edited by John McNeill. Reissued. Vol. 1. Louisville, KY: WJK, 2006, 292.